Discussion Question Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Discussion Question - Assignment Example However, given that one third of cancer cases can be traced to lifestyle, some cases can actually be prevented through adoption of healthy behavioural and dietary habits. To this end, the global health agencies have embarked on a sensetization campaign aimed at reducing cancer deaths by 8 million within a decade. Although numerous studies have been conducted to establish the real cause of cancer, none has given a definitive answer to this problem. Several factors both genetic and environmental are pointed out as likely causes. However, it is important to note that less than 9% of cancer cases are as a result of inheritance. Most cases are due to mutation of oncogenes caused by environmental elements such as cigarettes, alcohol, radiations and chemicals. In this regard, cancer is defined as a disease caused by uncontrolled growth and multiplication of body cells (Raymond, 2007). Through cell division and growth, the body is able to produce more cells needed for healthy existence. Howe ver, in some instances, the abnormal cell division and growth occurs leading to production of many cells some of which are not needed by the body. These extra cells gather to form either benign or malignant tumor. However, a benign tumor does not pose health risk because they do not move to other parts of the body. In the contrary malign tumors also known as cancerous cells multiply and damage neighboring tissues. In addition, they can separate from parent organ and spread to other parts of the body through the blood and lymph. With regard to cancer, diagnosis refers to the process of trying to establish whether the disease is actually cancer and its possible causes. It involves the removal of tissues from affected organs by a surgeon for examination under microscope by a pathologist. There are various types biopsy conducted on cancer suspects depending on the part of body being examined. When a needle is used to suck fluid from tumor cell, then the process is referred to as needle aspiration biopsy. Other types include excisional biopsy where the whole tissue is removed and incisional biopsy where part of the tissue is detached. After the diagnosis has been done, the process of examining its extent (staging) follow. This process is essential because it helps in determining the stage of cancer. There are four cancer stages often written in Roman numbers. Stage I imply that the tumor is small usually less than 2cm and still confined in the organ. Stage II cancer is bigger, usually 2-4 cm has not started spreading. Stage III cancer means the tumor is more than 4cm and has began spreading to the lymph nodes. Finally, stage IV means cancer has spread to other body organs Besides, staging help the physician to determine the type of tumor, check the spread, prescribe suitable treatment and predict the patient future outlook (Susan, Marsha and Margaret, 2009). Staging is preceded by clinical investigations such as surgery, blood test and medical scanning. Radiation i maging is the most common method used in staging. This can be done through Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and Computerized Tomography (CT) scans. Cancer like all other diseases is associated with various general and specific complications. Among the most prevalent complications is a neurological condition called brain metastases. It is estimated that 23% of cancer patients are affected by this condition. It is brought about by the spreading of tumors from other organs to the brain. Some of its side effects

Examining what makes a British Soap Opera Essay Example for Free

Examining what makes a British Soap Opera Essay In a general sense, Soaps are continuous, serialised dramas broadcast up to three or four times a week, usually with an omnibus at the weekends. They are filmed in the same settings from episode to episode and follow very contemporary themes (this is what makes them so appealing). A gender spilt between the audience reveals that around 70% are women, so the major Soaps have a clear target audience. The majority of new soaps seek not to disturb ongoing ratings battles, but break new ground and aim their productions at different age groups. For example, Hollyoaks is relatively new and aimed at teens. Soaps consistently win the biggest share of television ratings and capture the biggest share because their content appeals to their target audience. This content, on the surface may seem simply crafted, but after close examination reveals the numerous techniques, performances and styles that are harmonised in order to make the soap successful. As an art from, Soaps emerge as a highly complex form of drama. There are many features that have to be planned using very formulaic methods so that the final product will conform to expectations. The writers must produce content that is engaging, yet open further leads on to other potential storylines. However, they also stretch the storylines as long as possible in order to allow time to pass in which they can invent new stories and close others. A common tact is to obviously allow a storyline to occupy a majority of the 30-minute slot, but spilt it with intervening storylines (which delay it from completing its course). This achieves two main objectives- the delay creates time for further writing and expansion of the main story, whilst the short storylines in between can be refreshed

Free Essays - The Joys of Volunteering :: Contribution to My Community Service

The first agency I volunteered to work for is a program called Summer Quest. Summer Quest is designed to help students that are in the sixth through twelfth grade experience a "positive summer experience." What this actually means is that it provides students an opportunity to do fun and exciting things, in a positive atmosphere. Instead of the students sitting at home alone the entire summer, they have a place where they can hang out and enjoy themselves. This is a great program that offers students an alternative to getting into trouble and being alone during the Summer. Summer Quest is also setup in a way that all the activities are relatively inexpensive. This is where I come in. I was in charge of putting together a schedule of activities for each week. The schedule included an activity for Monday from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m., Thursday from 4:00 p.m. to 11:00 p.m., and Friday from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. This was a very difficult assignment. I had to plan fun events, but also make them very inexpensive. This was an interesting task that allowed me for the first time to use many of the skills I had learned in my Organizational Communication classes. I had to negotiate prices for admission, and figure out transportation and food cost. It also taught me a lot about planning and time organization. I had to plan months in advance, and fill in every second of the day with activities to keep the students busy. Now I know that in the future when I am in the real world, I can plan big events and pull them off successfully because of this experience. The second agency that I worked for was Parkway Preschool. This agency has two types of programs. They call the first program "Moms Day Out." This program allows parents who cannot afford, or do not have the resources of proper child care, a chance to drop their kids off three times a week from 8:30 a.m. to 1:00 p.m. The second program is a regular preschool program running from Monday to Friday. I had the opportunity to work with both programs during my volunteer work. During my day at the program I would sit in with different classes

John Steinbecks East of Eden - A Study in Human Development Essay

East of Eden: A study in human development  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The characteristics of people are formed by multiple factors. In many situations, children are raised under similar conditions, however, their later characteristics and life choices are very different. In the book, East of Eden, author John Steinbeck explores the development of humans, from childhood, to adulthood, and eventually, to death. East of Eden, by John Steinbeck, is a genealogical novel about the lives of the Trasks, particularly the main character in the book, Adam Trask. Along the way, the Hamiltons, Ames, and many other characters are introduced. Steinbeck makes a point of showing the continually changing nature of some characters, while describing the ceaseless staticness of others. In East of Eden, John Steinbeck presents his views on the construction of human behavior and the components that are incorporated in it. Setting is an important element in East of Eden. Described are beautiful, panoramical views of the surrounding landscapes of the Salinas Valley, California. "The Salinas Valley . . . is a swale between two ranges of mountains. . . . . On the wide level acres of the valley, the topsoil lays deep and fertile. . . . . Under the live oaks, shaded and dusky, the maidenhair flourished and gave a good smell, and under the mossy banks of the watercourses whole clumps of five-fingered ferns and goldy-backs hung down" (Steinbeck p. 480). Steinbeck then goes on to describe the human history of these areas. The groups of peoples that lived there are described in sweeping generalizations. "First there were Indians, an inferior breed without energy, inventiveness, or culture . . . their warfare was a weary pantomime. Then the hard, dry Spaniards came explor... ...dies the original Hebrew text and finds that the verb used there is "timshel." Timshel’s literal English translation is "thou mayest." During the course of the book, Steinbeck transforms the word into a metaphor for a style of living. It comes to describe the freedom of choice in one’s life. Steinbeck recognizes the fact that one's environment can affect them. However, he also recognizes one can work with what they are given and make the best of it. Steinbeck best sums up these views in a dialog between Samuel and Adam. "You can’t make a racehorse of a pig," said Adam. "No," said Samuel, "but you can make a very fast pig" (659).    Works Cited Steinbeck, John. The Grapes of Wrath, The Moon is Down, Cannery Row, East of Eden, Of Mice and Men. New York: Heinemann/Octopus, 1979. pp.475 - 896. Steinbeck, John. East of Eden. New York: Viking, 1952.

This graph shows the traffic going out of Birmingham City Centre using Broad Street

This graph shows the traffic going out of Birmingham City Centre using Broad Street. Cars are the main means of transport going out of Birmingham City Centre. Cars start off quite low. However, at 9:00 AM there is an increase of the number of cars going out of Birmingham City Centre. This may be due to a â€Å"rush hour†. However, this only lasts for an hour. Furthermore there is yet another increase of cars going out of Birmingham City Centre at 11:00 AM. This may be due to the fact it's getting nearer to lunch time. After an hour the decrease happens again. But, at 13:00 AM there is a massive increase of cars. This may be due to leaving after completing their shopping. The amount of cars going out of Birmingham City Centre carries on increasing whilst the day goes on. Vans/mbs start off quite similarly, with the amount of vans/mbs starting off quite low and gradually increasing. The same pattern is shows with the buses. Lorries start off quite high but keep decreasing as the day goes on. Bicycles stay low constantly through the day. This graph shows the traffic going into Birmingham City Centre using Broad Street. Cars are the main vehicles going into Broad Street. We can see this due to the fact that cars have the highest amount of vehicles by looking at the graph. Lorries and bicycles however, have the lowest amount. During the early hours of the day the number of cars starts off quite high with the rush hour being at about 8:00 AM. As the day goes on it starts to decrease. However at around 12:00 PM there is a sudden increase of traffic going into Birmingham City Centre. This may be due to the fact it's around lunch time. At around 13:00 PM, there is a decline in the amount of traffic going in. Then it begins to rise for an hour up until 14:00 PM, when it starts to decrease again. From 14:00 PM till 17:00 PM the traffic going in carries on decreasing. Buses and vans/mbs stay relatively close together in terms of the amount of each that appears to be going into Broad Street. However, buses show the same type of pattern that cars show. During 8:00AM till 9:00PM the amount of buses is quite high. This is quite similar with the vans/mbs. There is a sudden increase at 13:00PM. However Lorries and bicycles always stay low through the day. This graph shows the passenger car units (PCU) coming into Broad street. PCU stands for passenger car unit. This metric is used to measure the traffic-flow rate on a road such as Broad Street. The graph above is probably the most vital evidence that helps solve my hypothesis. This graph would give me a clear idea of whether Broad Street (a main route into the city) was congested. Using the Government figures the saturation point for a road such as Broad Street is 1522. This meant that when a value was over this, the road was congested. The graph shows that Broad Street was congested throughout the day. At 9:00 AM it's at its highest (2780), this is peak time in other words. From 11:00 AM onwards, the figures always stayed above 2000 but stayed below 2500. I can say that Broad Street on that day was congested at all times.

How do you Imagine a German Valentines Day

How do you Imagine a German Valentine's Day German Customs in February-Part 2: Valentines Day - Fasching/Karneval Traditional and Religious Celebrations and Customs Groundhog Day  (Mari Lichtmess)Valentinstag  (Valentines Day)Mardi Gras: Fastnacht/Fasching/Karneval Valentinstag(14. Februar) Sankt Valentin and the lovers celebration in his name are not traditionally German, but in recent years  Valentinstag  has become increasingly popular in Germany. Originally celebrated mainly in France and the English-speaking countries, it is now common to see Valentine cards and other signs of the holiday in Germany. This trend was most likely forced upon the Germans by an increased effort to the florist-industry. Be gentle to your German lover should he not take this day seriously. German men possibly prefer to buy you flowers rather for no reason than when they are being expected to. If they buy flowers at all. The origins of Valentines Day The origins of both the man known as  Valentinus  and the celebration itself are obscure. Little is known about the Roman (or Romans) who may have been a bishop in Terni or a priest in Rome. Although several legends have arisen around the Christian martyr Valentinus, there is no historical evidence that connects him to lovers or todays Feb. 14 Valentine celebration. As in the case of other Christian celebrations, Valentines Day is more likely based on the pagan Roman fertility festival called Lupercalia that took place in mid-February. The Lupercalia only ended in 495 when it was banned by the pope. Did you know that Valentines  Day  is actually forbidden in Saudi Arabia? Fastnacht/Fasching(date varies) The German  Mardi Gras  or Carnival celebration goes by many names:  Fastnacht,  Fasching,  Fasnacht,  Fasnet,  Karneval. This is a movable feast (beweglicher Festtag) that is related to  Easter  and does not occur on the same date each year. (For the dates this year, see  Die fà ¼nfte Jahreszeit.) The culmination of the  Fastenzeit  (Lent) is always on the Tuesday (fat Tuesday mardi gras, Shrove Tuesday) before  Aschermittwoch  (Ash Wednesday). The official start of the  Fasching  season is either on January 7 (the day after Ephiphany,  Dreikà ¶nige) or on the 11th day of the 11th month (Nov. 11,  Elfter im Elften), depending on the region. A highlight before the main highlight, the Rosenmontag, is the so called Weiberfastnacht (Fat Thursday, also in certain regions in Germany its called Fetter Donnerstag) celebrated on the Thursday before Karneval. The tradition is that the women cut of the tie of any man who dears to wear one that day. Should you fancy your ties, make sure to have a cheap one in your wardrobe for this occasion. In regions where Karneval is celebrated the most, you might witness a bunch of women storming the local Rathaus (town hall) in order to cut off the mens ties. You certainly understand what a mans tie symbolises, right? Rosenmontag The Rosenmontag is the main celebration day of Carnival. That day there will be a huge parade marching through the city unless you live in Berlin or the northern parts of Germany. We are possibly not as jeck (nuts) as those southerners or simply have to drive out less demons than them. For those who miss all this kunterbunt trouble in Berlin, theres a little refuge for those from the Rhine region here in Berlin, the Stndige Vertretung. You might want to check it out next time you are in Berlin. Find out more about other  Celebrations and Customs here.   NEXT ARTICLE   Holidays in March Original article by: Hyde Flippo Edited on the 28th of June 2015 by: Michael Schmitz

Effects of Global Communication on Westernization The WritePass Journal

Effects of Global Communication on Westernization Introduction Effects of Global Communication on Westernization IntroductionGlobalization of western cultureWesternizationThe effects of global communication and how it developsEnglish as a global languageConclusionReferencesRelated Introduction Analysis of the explosion in international exchanges is mainly focused on the impact of globalization and between the peoples of the world economic aspects of the cultural exchanges between the expenditure. Americanization of globalization is another term? General pattern of media ownership that is west led by the United States to dominate the information the major media and entertainment sectors in international flows. But what is such a global way flow of information and entertainment on the national and regional media culture shock? Some people believe that the international communication and media are lead to cultural homogenization, but the global / national / local interaction model may be more complex. (Montana, et al., 2008) Globalization of western culture As detailed in the previous course of global communications hardware and software industry is owned by a few multinational corporations, especially those based in the United States. So, first we study the Americanization. Westernization Westernization is a non-Western society that Western culture in the industrial, technological, legal, political, economic, lifestyle, diet, language, alphabet, culture, religion or values deal with the impact of these things. Westernization has been in the past few years the popularity of the world and accelerates the impact. It is usually a two-sided process, that Western influence and interests of their society by the impact of a change on the hope that at least in part to a more Westernized society in the realization of certain aspects of Western life or hope. Westernization can also be involved in the process of acculturation. Acculturation refers to the change in a society or culture; there will be two different groups of direct continuous contact. After exposure, the changes in cultural patterns in one or both of the culture are obvious. (Barnlund, 2008) In popular speech, Westernization can also refer to Western expansion and colonialism on the local society. For example, the local people who have used European languages and customs of the characteristics of the West is known as assimilation or westernization. Westernization may be forced or voluntary depending on the exposure circumstances. Domination, destruction, resistance, survival, adaptation, and the local culture may follow different degrees of modification interethnic contact. In one case, the experience of local culture as a more powerful outsiders damage caused by a shock period is often the result from the encounter. This is the shock stage, particularly in relation to colonial expansion or the interaction between characteristics of the times. In the shock phase, civil repression of the use of force may lead to cultural collapse, or ethnic and cultural extinction, this is a culture of physical extinction. The effects of global communication and how it develops Hundreds of years ago, when the ship began to explore the world, they may never have thought, people can contact each other too quickly and easily in the 21st century. First of all, we want to know it is a global communications: it is sending and receiving information of a worldwide process. Like a full one on different areas (economic, educational, cultural, business, science, technology and politics.) countrys national communication, but today, global communications has greatly changed, it is increasingly faster, more convenient, more effective. (Kottak Phillip, 2005) In the past, it is difficult to obtain enough information on other countries of the world. Is there a link for each country? Most of the country has just co-operation with neighbouring countries. However, it really put their communication time. Because of the distance and low-technology, global communication is very limited. With the technology, significant changes have taken place, based on the invention of cell phones and computers where a dedicated global communications. They communicate a very important global role; they are widely used in the life of the people now in the application. Development of technology is driving the global spread of growth to change peoples lives. People can keep in touch with each other mobile phones and computers, even though they live in different countries. Synchronous communication links to provide the people easy and fast way. In addition, people can acquire knowledge through the computer. We can better understand the world, we can know in our midst, what in the world on a daily basis, we can know everything, and we should know our stuff to learn, the fastest, we can do. (Velkley Richard, 2002) There have been advances in global communications, in cultural, economic and political globalization as a high-tech bridge to strengthen international exchanges and cooperation between each country. We have more opportunities and easy way to understand the culture of other countries, on the basis of their culture, its benefits; we have further cooperation with them to do business. With the cooperation of all ethnic groups in politics, no doubt played the entire countrys stability and development of an increasingly important role. The growing high-tech, global communication in the past decade has brought changes of globalization. As the international business of this kind, its development speed is very fast. Some of the large companies from the developing countries are opening up new factories in developing countries. They are not only to promote cooperation among countries, but also increase local employment. It can also be ordered from the network products in the domestic and foreign. Their military practice is good for world peace. In addition, there are many regional and international organizations, ASEAN (the Association of Southeast Asian), the European Union, the Arab League, the International Monetary Fund, the World Trade Organization. While some organizations have long ago discovered that they have developed rapidly and in recent years played an important role in globalization. In short, the development of high-tech, global communication has been great progress today. It into a new era, knowledge, an d we are full of opportunities. It makes the whole world is one family. (Berghahn Volker, 2010) However, this concept is misleading, one-way impact of linear and homogeneous medium. Technical effect is always the community mediation and construction. Each new technology must find in social life, a cultural space, in order to have any meaningful social relations impact. In the media, in technology ranging from the simplest to the most complex, easy access at any time from the unique situation of the small elite, the effects are even more complex and ambiguous. Macromedia, the distinction between the concept of media and micro media may illustrate this point. Communications (satellite, mainframe computers, the Internet, its branches, the World Wide Web) and Macromedia appears to be agents of globalization. Through global satellite and computer networks, cross-border data flows, scientific and professional e-mail, commercial advertisements, Macromedia is supporting the national market, social and cultural globalization. In view of communication (print, film, radio) media are mainly government or pressure groups in their control function, so in short-term national integ agents in most cases, high technology, and the development of global communications have made great progress today. It goes into a new era, knowledge, we are full of opportunity. It makes the whole world is one family. (Chapman Roger, 2009) However, this concept is misleading, one-way impact of linear and homogeneous medium. Technology has been the effect of community mediation and construction. Each new technology must find in social life, a cultural space, in order to have any meaningful social impact. In the media, from the simplest to the most complex, at any time from the unique circumstances of the elite when the easy access technology, its impact is even more complex and ambiguous. Macromedia, the media between the media and the concept of micro-, may explain this difference. Communications (satellite, mainframe computers, the Internet, its affiliates, the World Wide Web), and Macromedia appears to be the agents of globalization. Through global satellite and computer networks, cross-border data flow, scientific and professional e-mail, commercial advertisements, Macromedia is supporting the national market, social and cultural globalization. Micro-communications (telephone, copiers, stereos, VCRs, music tapes and personal computer) in the power of the major media have given the centrifugal force of the external object. All three types of media, but through close government, market and civil society, social network connected. If there is no historical and cultural background in the specific circumstances of social and political functions, therefore, influence the media largely mysterious and incomprehensible. (Nadeem Macaulay, 2009) English as a global language Modern English is sometimes referred to as the global lingua franca. English is the major in communications, science, business, aviation, entertainment, broadcasting and the international language of diplomacy. The impact of the British Empire is a language far beyond the British Isles, the initial transmission, the main reason. After World War II, the growing economic and cultural influence of the United States has been greatly accelerated by the British. Working knowledge of English is required in some areas, professional and vocational. More than one billion people as a result of the English-speaking at least a basic level (see English language learning and teaching.) English is one of six United Nations official languages. English, computer science and the world because English is so widely used, it is often referred to as a, Äà ºglobal language, the African Union, the common language of our times. Although English is not the official language in most countries, this is the most frequently around the world, the language of second language teaching. (Fitzpatrick Michael, 2008) Some linguists [attribution needed] that it is no longer exclusive, Äà ºnative English speakers, the AU and cultural symbols, but a language, it absorbs all kinds of culture around the world and will continue to grow. It is by international treaties, air and sea traffic official language, and the European Union, the United Nations, one of the official languages and the most international, including the International Olympic Organizing Committee for the English language is the language most often studied as European Union foreign language ( 89% of students), France (32%), Germany (18%) and Spain (8%), followed. In non-English speaking countries, a large part of the population claim to be able to speak English, the Netherlands (87%), Sweden (85%), Denmark (83%), Luxembourg (66%), Finland (60%), Slovenia (56%), Austria (53%), Belgium (52%), and Germany (51%). Norway and Iceland also have charge of the majority of English speakers. In addition, the younger generation in these countries, English is close to 100%. [Edit] books, magazines, newspapers, and in English in many countries around the world. English is the most commonly used language in science. In 1997, the Science Citation Index reported that 95% of the articles are written in English, even if only half of the country from the English came. (Steger Manfred, 2009) Conclusion The spread of the global communications technology, such as internet, has lead to the above mentioned changes and westernization in countries around the globe. Due to all this adaptation of the western culture by the people living around the globe, there is a growing threat of people completely moving to giving up their own cultures to completely transform to the western cultures. References Baluska, F.; Marcuso, Stefano; Volkmann, Dieter. Communication in plants: neuronal aspects of plant life. Taylor Francis US. (2006). p. 19. Barnlund, D. C. A transactional model of communication. In. C. D. Mortensen (Eds.), Communication theory. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction. (2008). Berghahn, Volker R. The debate on Americanization among economic and cultural historians, Cold War History, Vol. 10 Issue 1. (2010). pp 107–130 Chapman, Roger. Culture wars: an encyclopedia of issues, viewpoints, and voices, Volume 1. (2009). Fitzpatrick, Michael. Body art blunders. The Guardian (London). (2008). Kottak, Phillip. Window on Humanity. New York: McGraw-Hill. (2005). Montana, Patrick J, Charnov, Bruce H. Management. 4th ed. New York. Barrons Educational Series, Inc. (2008). Pg 333. Nadeem, S, Macaulay’s. (Cyber) Children: The Cultural Politics of Outsourcing in India. Cultural Sociology. (2009). Steger, Manfred. Globalization. New York: Sterling Publishing. (2009). Velkley, Richard. The Tension in the Beautiful: On Culture and Civilization in Rousseau and German Philosophy. Being after Rousseau: Philosophy and Culture in Question. The University of Chicago Press. (2002). pp.  11–30

Common Numbering Systems Used in Genealogy

Common Numbering Systems Used in Genealogy Have you ever been elated at the discovery of a compiled family history for your ancestors, only to find yourself confused by all of the numbers and what they mean? Family lineages presented in text, rather than in graphical format, require an organizational system to allow the user to easily follow lines down through descendants or back toward the original ancestors. These standard numbering systems are used to show relationships between generations in a family tree. In other words, who is connected to whom. When numbering your genealogy, it is best to adopt a well-established system that is easily interpreted. Even if youre using a genealogy software program to compile your family history, it is still important to understand the differences and formats of the most widely-used numbering systems. If you plan to publish your family history, genealogical quarterlies, magazines and other publications may require a specific format. Or a friend may send you a pedigree chart which uses one of these numbering systems. It isnt necessarily important to learn the ins and outs of every numbering system, but it helps to have at least a general understanding. Common Genealogical Numbering Systems While genealogy numbering systems vary in their organization, they all have in common the practice of identifying individuals and their relationships through a specific numbering sequence. Most numbering systems are used to display descendants of a given ancestor, while one, the ahnentafel, is used to display the ancestors of an individual. Ahnentafel - From a German word meaning ancestor table, an ahnentafel is an ancestor based numbering system. Good for presenting a lot of information in a compact format, and the most popular numbering system for ascending genealogies. Register Numbering System - Based on the numbering system used by the New England Historical and Genealogical Register, the register system is one of several options for numbering descendant reports. NGSQ Numbering System - Sometimes referred to as the Modified Register System from which it was adapted and modernized, this popular descendant numbering system is used in the National Genealogical Society Quarterly and in many other family history publications. Henry Numbering System - Yet another descendant numbering system, the Henry System is named after Reginald Buchanan Henry, who used it in his Genealogies of the Families of the Presidents. published in 1935. This system is less often used than the Register and NGSQ systems, and is not accepted for certification projects or by most genealogical publications.

Two problems related to Climate Change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Two problems related to Climate Change - Essay Example Although this problem is a global issue, the impacts vary across the globe since some areas experience more adverse effects than others do. Social and environmental versions problems of climate change are the most notorious, as they not only pose a threat to food security and survival of organisms, but also affects the surrounding and lifestyle of human beings. Thus, social and environmental problems share several similarities, but also differ in some instances. Social and environmental issues are similar since they both have adverse effects on human health. Climate change is a problem because it causes environmental harms such as increased and severity of heat waves resulting from global warming, which leads the loss of lives (McNall 5). Modest warming of the earth that has been occurring since 1970s is responsible for many deaths annually. On the social front, health systems are stretched as they attempt to cope with the increasing incidences of heat-related problems. Additionally, adverse climatic conditions such as strong winds and drought damage health infrastructure and buildings in the society. As a result, the outcome undermines the provision of quality health services to the community. Drought is also directly responsible for changes in the human health system, as it causes starvation and deterioration of health in human beings. In addition, both issues result in food problem. Increased temperatures in the atmosphere caused by climate change create an opportunity for various disease causing organisms to contaminate food. The cases of bacteria borne disease are frequently high during summer months. Additionally, climatic changes result in social issues such as poverty. Poverty is the primary reason for inequalities in the society. The poor, who survive on less than $2, are the most affected. These people cannot cope with the climate shocks since they lack money. Due to this, in case of drought they have no alternative, but to cut down

Apple Supply Chain Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Apple Supply Chain - Essay Example Apple Inc has able to develop a supply chain management that has been studied by most companies. With the recent earthquake in Japan, Apple is expected to face considerable supply issues but so far Apple has been able to survive the recent challenge. APPLE SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT Apple supply chain management is unique in the sense that they manufacture the parts of their products in Asian countries, especially China, and assemble and market its product in California. Apple Supply Chain management is successful because of their successful outsourcing and the make-buy decision. ‘Outsourcing is defined as the contracting of one or more of the company’s business processes to an outside service provider to help increase shareholder value, by primarily reducing operating costs and focusing on core competencies’ (Kulkarni and Sharma, 2004). Apple has made great use of the outsourcing alternative by keepings its core competency, that is, its design and user interface wit hin the company while outsourcing the production. In this way, Apple has considerably reduced its operating costs through this process without compromising on its positioning as the best technology. Before proceeding further, we need to understand the typical movement of Apple products from the origin to the end users. Products such as the Apple iPod, iMac, iPhone etc are first designed in the Apple headquarters located in California. Once the team of designers develops the unique look and design for the product, the supply chain team in collaboration with the engineers and designers decides the suppliers for the particular product. Most of Apple’s products are manufactured at Foxxcon, a Taiwanese electronic company. This company is responsible for the products of the parts of iPhone while Apple keeps the original blue print of the product with itself to prevent any copyright issues (Xu, Tjoa and Chaudhry, 2007). Once the products are developed, they are shipped to Apple Inc. headquarters located in California. Thus, California assumes the responsibility of marketing and distributing the product. With the increase in demand of Apple products internationally, the products are distributed almost everywhere in the world including China, which is turning out to be the most developing market for Apple products. Thus, ‘Apple serves as the supply chain coordinator, integrator, and provider of operations best-practices, innovations, and strategies for all its partners’ (Simchi-Levi, 2010) THE MAKE-BUY DECISION For a supply chain to succeed in the best possible manner, the make-buy decision is the primary and most crucial decisions for the supply chain manager. The supply chain manager needs to be aware of the products that the company would be making and the products that the company would buy from other suppliers. This decision is based on the knowledge of the core competencies. Core competencies are those factors where the organization excels at and the key areas where the organization has able to develop a unique selling proposition (Monczka,  Handfield,   Guinipero,  Patterson and Walters , 2010). . In the case of Apple, the core competency is its design and the user interface it has developed for the consumers. The technology comes in part and parcel of the design while the actual production is secondary. When consumers buy Apple products,

Philadelphia (1993) Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Philadelphia (1993) - Research Paper Example Far right views also view the AIDS pandemic as a God sent weapon to destroy the homosexual population. According Friedman-Kien AE (1981), the views of the religious right on matters of HIV can be termed as â€Å"Dissident science†. This term comes from the fact that the theories put forward by the religious right have no scientific backing. It is unfortunate that for a long time the views of the religious right heavily impacted on policy discourses of the disease. This paper explores the responses AIDS activist media reacted to the dissident science on HIV/AIDS as constructed by the religious right. In particular, the paper explores the homosexual dimension of the HIV/AIDS debate as espoused by the Movie Philadelphia (1993). The causation debate Scientifically, it is known that HIV/AIDs is caused by the transfer of body fluids containing the viruses from one person to another’s bloodstream. The primary method of transmission of the disease is sexual intercourse. Male to male intercourse is not a HIV risk by itself. Instead, two other conditions must be met for transmission to occur. These conditions are: one of the partners has to be infected with the virus, and intercourse must result in introduction of the HIV virus into the blood stream of the uninfected partner (Duesberg, 1989). In the United States most transmissions occur between gay men. While globally most transmission occur in between heterosexual sexual partners. Since, the 1980 and 1990 the trend of higher infections in homosexual population has continued in the United States (Duesberg, 1989). It is worth noting that when the disease was first diagnosed in the United States it was recorded among Homosexual populations. This gave rise to strongly held prejudice among religious right activists that HIV/AIDS is a disease for Gay people (Marcus, 2002). The religious activist made it appear like the disease was caused by Gay men and then spread to the rest of the heterosexual population. Ini tially, HIV/AIDS was referred by names that closely tied with the gay sexual orientation. According to Andriote (1999), early reports of the disease referred to it as the gay plague, gay cancer or the Gay disease. Early researchers referred to it as the Gay-related immune deficiency (GRID). The homosexual community responded to this branding of the disease as homosexual disease by mobilizing demonstration. In 1986, Gay AIDs activists were called to action to deflect an editorial that linked HIV/AIDS with the group. William F. Buckley had published an article in March 1986 asserting â€Å"It is both a fact and the popular perception that AIDS is the special curse of the Homosexual† (Andriote, 1999). The article went further to propose the branding of gay men with AIDS at the rear and drug addicts on the arm. The Article led to the formation of the Swift and Terrible Retribution Committee. In concentration camp uniforms the retribution council picketed the headquarters of Buckl ey’s National Review in Manhattan (Afshar, n.d). The Gay and Lesbian Alliance against defamation started the media activism by organizing demonstration against homophobic and AIDS phobic coverage of HIV issues all over America (Vaid, 1995). Most of the demonstrations targeted the New York Times which was accused of being deliberately biased against

Management information system (IT) case studies assignment Essay

Management information system (IT) case studies assignment - Essay Example They have a competitive edge because the web based program accurately predicts consumer buying pattern and accordingly, the company can facilitate the changes in its products and services, to meet the changing demands of its customers. Harrah’s approach to determining and rewarding customer loyalty has significantly increased the number of committed customers and opened scope for targeted marketing for customers with similar profiles. CDW and Harrah can considerably increase the number of products and services by efficiently analyzing customer buying behaviour and also introduce interactive and custom based products and services,at little extra cost. The purpose and business value of Web services is to provide a large platform for its users to improve their e-commerce activities and generate huge revenue. The ‘programmable website’ of Amazon has given its customers a readymade website of their own which can be customized as per their requirements. The benefits of Web services to Amazon, eBay, and their developer partners are extensive in the form of exposure to a whole new world of creative output, whose scope is unlimited with ever increasing customer base. The business benefits to Amazon and eBay of opening up some of their databases to developers and entrepreneurs are extensive in scope and revenue because each new developer brings many more new surfers in its ambit, each of which translates into revenue for Amazon and eBay. Google has been hesitant in opening its database to its users mainly because it thought that it may lose control over its core operations and gradual opening of its web based business areas would help it to better organize its activities to facilitate emerging opportunities. The other companies should follow Amazon and eBay’s lead and open up some of their databases to developers and

Animation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Animation - Essay Example The purpose of this paper is to explore how animation has evolved and changed since the golden age of Disney in the 1930s through to the Pixar films of modern day. To do this, the research will focus particularly on a classic Disney movie (Fantasia) and one of the most popular films released by Pixar (Toy Story). In doing this, some similarities will be uncovered between the two, despite the differences in technology and the vastly different eras in which they were generated and produced. Disney’s Fantasia Fantasia is one of the most influential Disney films, and was released in 1940 (Neuwirth, 2003). The film itself is highly complex for such an early example of animated film, with over 500 characters being present within the story and over 1000 members of staff working on different elements of the production (Neuwirth, 2003). Although related to previous Disney animations (Mickey Mouse and Silly Symphonies), Fantasia is well recognized for having some of the most brightly co lored and intensely lit stills from any other animated movie or short from the period (Lasseter, 1995), perhaps a testament to the developing technology of the time. Color itself is recognized as being one of the most important elements of Fantasia’s success, and Disney requested that each scene be color-coded in a specific way to allow smooth transition between shots. Additionally, artists involved in the picture were encouraged to make 3D models of their characters to understand the movement for a more ‘realistic’ feel, despite the abstract nature of the film (Cavalier, 2011). An important point to note with respect to Fantasia and the early Disney films is that each and every shot in the film was drawn, colored and lit individually; an extremely painstaking process. It is from this starting point that the evolution of animation technology can be considered. Pixar’s Toy Story Like Fantasia, Toy Story is extremely significant in the history of animation. Released in 1995, Toy Story was the first full-length animation to be completely done using computer animation techniques. It also has the credit of being the first film released by Pixar, a hugely successful modern film studio. Toy Story relies on CGI-animation techniques created with PhotoRealistic RenderMan, a Pixar-specific image-rendering application based on the industry standard (Cavalier, 2011). One of the biggest challenges for animating the movie was that the producers wanted the animation to look as realistic as possible, which means a huge attention to detail. In this way, the animation techniques for both Toy Story and Fantasia involve a similar commitment. However, it is worth noting that only 27 animators worked on the production of Toy Story, although over 400 real 3D models were created to allow the animators to study movement and gain a picture of how the characters in the film should move and behave to create the aforementioned realism (Lasseter, 1995). Additional ly, there were challenges involved in creating realistic shadows and lighting, although these could be done to a higher standard than in typical ‘cartoon-style’ animations. Technology & Composition There are 55 years between the release of Disney’s Fantasia and Pixar’s Toy Story, which evidently means that there are a lot of

Management information system (IT) case studies assignment Essay

Management information system (IT) case studies assignment - Essay Example They have a competitive edge because the web based program accurately predicts consumer buying pattern and accordingly, the company can facilitate the changes in its products and services, to meet the changing demands of its customers. Harrah’s approach to determining and rewarding customer loyalty has significantly increased the number of committed customers and opened scope for targeted marketing for customers with similar profiles. CDW and Harrah can considerably increase the number of products and services by efficiently analyzing customer buying behaviour and also introduce interactive and custom based products and services,at little extra cost. The purpose and business value of Web services is to provide a large platform for its users to improve their e-commerce activities and generate huge revenue. The ‘programmable website’ of Amazon has given its customers a readymade website of their own which can be customized as per their requirements. The benefits of Web services to Amazon, eBay, and their developer partners are extensive in the form of exposure to a whole new world of creative output, whose scope is unlimited with ever increasing customer base. The business benefits to Amazon and eBay of opening up some of their databases to developers and entrepreneurs are extensive in scope and revenue because each new developer brings many more new surfers in its ambit, each of which translates into revenue for Amazon and eBay. Google has been hesitant in opening its database to its users mainly because it thought that it may lose control over its core operations and gradual opening of its web based business areas would help it to better organize its activities to facilitate emerging opportunities. The other companies should follow Amazon and eBay’s lead and open up some of their databases to developers and

Appropriation as a critical practice in postmodernist art Essay

Appropriation as a critical practice in postmodernist art - Essay Example In the context of visual arts, art appropriation is associated with concepts of borrowing, adoption, recycling, or sampling certain aspects or even the entire form of any visual arts creation. The strategies used include recombinant, variation, interpretation, re-vision, imitation, supplement, re-evaluation, version, improvisation, increment, homage, paraphrase, forgery, mimicry, allusion, and karaoke.   Thus, in this form of art the artist while creating a new object uses certain elements borrowed from another artist’s works. This borrowing, referred to in the context of describing the new work, will term it as 'the artist uses appropriation;' or it may also directly refer to the new work and state, 'this is a piece of appropriation art'. Within ‘Arts’ the practice of appropriation involves the use of other artists’ symbol, ideas, artefacts, objects, photographs, sound, forms or styles from the various cultures, popular culture, art history, or any man c reated visual or non visual art form (Schneider, 2003). An elementary feature of appropriation art is that the artist in his new work simply reframes the original idea and presents it as a new one. Thus, in a majority of the cases, the original work still remains visible or accessible without change within the framework of the new creation. Anthropologists in their various research papers have claimed that this process of appropriation, is another form of  cultural borrowing  and includes concepts of both art and urbanism, and represents a path of the cultural modifications taking place while also distinguishing the relationship between the different cultures worldwide (Schneider, 2007). The words variation and   appropriation  in art often viewed as synonyms and used interchangeably, to denote the same form of work (ibid). In this context, we will examine works of three famous artists Robert Rauschenberg, Andy Warhol, and Barbara Kruger as we explore the use of appropriatio n as a critical practice in postmodernist art.   Discussion A brief overview of the history of appropriation art: Various artists, scholars and critics, have studied and analysed the route of the ‘appropriative’ notions that have been present in the arts history for many centuries. The word ‘appropriation’ implies ownership rights, and associated questions on unethical practices. Appropriation has been long present within the history of arts, and a study of the ancient artworks will reveal that the classical Greek artworks existed primarily through the Roman art appropriations. These were presented in the form of reproductions, created specially, to preserve, to keep records, to document, or to elicit a culture they hoped to imitate in the future (Deloria, 1999), while during the Middle Ages, a perfectly reproduced artwork was generally granted the same honour as the original piece. As per the notions associated with appropriation art, one can also refer Leonardo da Vinci  as an appropriation artist of the middle ages. Da Vinci used the ‘recombinant’ technique of appropriation, and accepted ideas from different sources and diverse subjects like art, mathematics, biology, and engineering and then combining them to create inventory artworks. In fact, modern historians contend that many of Da Vinci’s scientific models and designs were imitated and improvised versions of the works of another famous sculptor

Origins of Cold War Essay Example for Free

Origins of Cold War Essay The Cold War was one of the most important historical events in the world, which had created a great impact that is still felt within the international community. The United States and the Soviet Union became the two most influential and powerful forces during this era. The relationship between the two former allies was anchored on political, ideological and economic interests, which at the end of the Second World War came as threats wherein developed bitterness and rivalry for power over the years (Hoesel, 1992). The Cold War which has been referred to as the period of â€Å"elusive peace† dictated that the United States of America as the world’s leading hegemonic power, with the defeat and disintegration of the Soviet Union at the end of the war. The Cold War indeed has been a conflict involving former allies, United States of America and the Soviet Union due to the difference in political ideologies held by the two superpowers (Nosotro, n.d).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The difference in political ideologies caused the development of animosity and hostility between United States and the Soviet bloc. The United States having been supportive of capitalism clashed with the communist Soviet Union (Nosotro, n.d). Although there had been no direct confrontation between the two world superpowers, indirect confrontations among the United States and Soviet allies were enough to assess the impact of the Cold War. Economic, political and military affairs of the two states and their allies underwent massive policy changes in order to keep abreast with the happenings during the Cold War. The â€Å"arms race† was one of the most important indirect military offensives that took place between United States and Soviet Union, both states trying to produce more sophisticated weapons ahead of the other. This in turn created a great impact on the two states’ economic and social services sectors (Kishlansky, 2005).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As such, the political allies of both United States and Soviet Union were also affected as both governments of the two states worked towards spreading influences in less developed countries. The series of decolonization became rampant and emphasized in regions such as Asia, Latin America, Africa and Middle East. And as such, the conflicts brought by the Cold War were instantly shifted and transmitted within these areas (â€Å"The Elusive Peace The Cold War,† 1992). References Hoesel, F.V. (1992). The Soviet Union and the United States. Soviet Archives Exhibit. Retrieved August 23, 2008, from http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/soviet.exhibit/intro2.htmls Kishlansky, M. (2005) Civilization in the West, Volume C (since 1789), 7th edition. Nosotro, R. (n.d). The cold war. Hyperhistory. Retrieved August 23, 2008, from http://www.hyperhistory.net/apwh/essays/big/w30coldwar.htm The elusive peace the cold war. (1992). History World International. Retrieved August 9, 2008, from http://history-world.org/coldwar.htm

Defining And Analysing Business Ethics Philosophy Essay

Defining And Analysing Business Ethics Philosophy Essay Ethics is similar value and moral, in business ethics are doing something and decision, that not right or wrong, it is depend on people how to treat and feel it. In business, all care about is money, it will done everything because of money. They even not care about to do that thing have moral or not. They just think about that done about have valuable or not. Business ethics is doing not have correct or wrong, it is depend how much you can covered by your conscience. Define the follow Concepts: In business ethics, there have five concepts, which are contractual rights, ethics of virtue, legal rights, principles of fair equality opportunity, and utilitarianism. Those concepts can to guide or to be an example for the business to conduct. Contractual rights is the rights based on the contract, either one party of the contract breach the contract, the other party can to sued the breach of contract. It is an agreement between two or more people mutual benefit but do not necessarily involve in mutual supportiveness. The right is based on the contract, if the contract does not have mention about, then might not can to sue the other party because in this theory is based on the contractual rights. No contract, no agreement, and then no right to complain or sue the other party. In business, everything is made by the contract that can secure both party benefit and loss. Contractual right can to secure people have the right to made contract and sue people who is breach of contract. Both parties have the right to sue other party based on the contract. For example, buyer and the seller, they have to sign a contract for seller must have supply A4 paper 1000 sets. Buyer has the right the sue seller because supply A3 paper to them, instead of A4 paper. Both party have right to sue each other if they have something are not followed by the contract. Or the seller can sue the buyer if the buyer is late or do not have pay the installments. Ethics of virtue is an approach to ethics that rule, and particular acts focus on the kind of people who acting. Ethics of virtue is the person when is a kid, parents or people who relative to effect the person. Ethics of virtue is important for business ethics because in business people must trust other people. And the trust is come from the virtue ethics. Ethics of virtue is that value and characteristic on the person, is based on the person culture, background, moral, and value. Obligation is not morally sufficient for virtue. To compare virtues and moral character is duties or rules and that consequence of actions. In business, businessmen or businesswomen believe that trust. Although they have to sign contract, before this action, they must have a trust between each other. Some of the business is do not have use contract, they use trust to their each other, such as allow owing the money for doing the business. If do not have any trust for the business party or other party, it might make the business hard to conduct. They are allow to owing money is not a small amount, if they each other do not have trust between them. How come a person to believe and allow to owing the money? For example, to do a business must have a virtue ethics, such as be honest. Nowadays, to do businesses are cannot to cheat other party, customers already to be smarter, they are know you are cheating them. Once they are known you are cheating them, they are not to deal with you anymore. They would not to do a business with a dishonest businessman, and it will to spoil the business images because the person who deals with you, they will spread out what you did. This ethics theory should be right based that legal rights are that legal guaranteed power available to a legal. It can claims to rights, such as property, work, privacy, speak, and clean environment. Such as people have the right have a clean and good environment to live, they have right to live in a good environment. But some of the people to spoil and dirty up the environment, such as thrown rubbish in river, spitting, and so on. People have the right to live in a good environment, maybe some of the people are not like to live in good and clean environment but they have no right to discourage other people have right to live in good and clean environment. In business, right do not have correct or wrong, there are only have positive and negative right. Positive right is that right is good for anyone; negative right is that might have some of people do not thing that is good or bad for anyone. Such as, a people smoke not right or wrong, in the smoker, they have a right to smoke, but for people who surround the smoker have the right do not have breathed in the second smoke. Positive right is smoker has a right to smoke, the negative right is people have a right to choose does not breathe in the secondhand smoke. For example, people have a right to sell or not to anyone. Businessmen have their own right to decide to sell what kind of product, and they have right to selling to whom. Unfortunately, government have to interfere with the business, no one can to in charge the business without government. But businessmen have the right to choose which party they want to collaborate with. Principles of fair equality of opportunity is mean everyone have a fair enough opportunity in every fields. To be fair or have an equality of opportunity that should have not any discrimination, include culture, religion, race, gender, age, and so on. Have an equality opportunity is very difficult to gain and it have happened in everywhere. Hard to prevent or avoid this thing happened. If to fair enough to everyone, it will to make happened more because to given more chance to everyone to try to do. More chance to try that can have more answer at all. In business, company or businessmen are discrimination of gender, age, culture, race, and so on to hiring or dealing with. Discrimination people might get sued by the people. For example, a company to hire a staff cannot to depend on the staff background, culture, region, and gender; it might get sued by the candidate. Or a business deal because of the gender or race. Many businesses were done by the gender, it might consider as bribe. Some kinds of businesses are not dealing with women, because discrimination women capable, they are doubt women capable. Have an equality of opportunity that can to help the business going up, maybe the people who are discriminated by the person, they can maximum the job, to done as well. Different people have different capable, should to give a chance for everyone, just for done as well in the job. Also that do not discrimination any position of job, even a cleaning worker is important for a company. Utilitarianism is takes into consideration opportunity cost and benefit, and to give satisfaction to other. It should choose the option that brings greater to most people. It can to maximum the good and minimum the harm, and it has to decide what is good. There have two types of utilitarianism which is act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. Act utilitarianism is performing that act to leads to greatest good for greatest, it is use an action to greatest to people, such as charity, donation, and so on. Each individual action is to be evaluated directly utility principle. In business it will do the charity and something for social responsibility in order to build a good image to the company. For example, a company to give salary to the worker in return working for company, the salary for the workers is very important because the money can to give they eat, sleep, drink, clothes, and even to pay the daily use expenses. It is to greatest good and to give greatest for most people. To using an action to give a happiness to people, such as donate money to beggar. Other utilitarianism is rule utilitarianism; it is based on the rule to give the greatest people. Rule have significant place, and cannot be compromised for protect at all. It is behavior that evaluated by rules, if universally followed would lead to the greatest good for the greatest. For example, to give a greastest based on the rule, it might as the law. Only the rule can to protect, secure, and to give the greatest, it will help to give a good thing. The rules are come from the law, and the law will secure the benefit for everyone. In business, businessmen or businesswomen use the rule to secure their business. Such as, the method to do business is very important, need to understand the rule of different business, or sign contract. In conclusion, the concepts of ethics are example to give businessmen or businesswomen know that to do business must have conscience, and that also nowadays the thing do not have. Five concepts have business ethics that are contractual rights, ethics of virtue, legal rights, principles of fair equality of opportunity, and utilitarianism. QUESTION 2 2. Do you agree with the claims that (i) future generations have no rights, and (ii) the future generations to which we have obligations actually include only the generation that will immediately succeed us? Explain your answer. If you do not agree with these claims, state your own views and provide arguments to support them. Introduction: What is Right? Rights are an equitable that can have it to everyone that is a power to everyone. Everyone have a power to decide their own things how to going on. For a company they have copyrights that to prevent other company to copy they product packaging or logo. Human have a rights to choose what they want actually, even a kid also have a rights to choose what they want. But many people are like to decide for everyone, they are discouraging people to choose what they want, such as parent, friends, and sibling. Do Not Agree Future Generations have No Right I am not agree future generations have no rights, everyone come to this world should have their own rights. For future generations also, they have their own rights to decided by themselves. Parents should try to let children to make decision, maybe decision is wrong, and at least, the decision is decided by them. They are not regret about the wrong decision. Future generations should have rights to choose what they are wanted actually. Future generations are our future hope, should to bring a best thing to them. Education, future generations have own opinion, perception, and they have rights to selection or decide what they future. Such as parents to arrange the children go to other country to further study, or to disallow the children to choose what they want. Parents are not consider the child do not want to go oversea for further study. Some of parents will interfere with children study, maybe the children are like to draw, and have talent to draw, want to be artist, but parents hope the child to be an accountant or be professional, do not like a child to be artist. To stop the child dream but the child has rights to decide what career they want. Many workers are not satisfying their job because they doing the job are not they like. Maybe some workers are forced by parents; they are not hope to do so. Have a lot of people will to do what the parents hope, after that, they will change the career, or even go to study again for interest. Furthermore, nowadays people have educated, they know what are they can to have and right. They would not to keep quiet; they are known what rights they have. Formerly, government are controlled publish the truth and information to the citizens for prevent citizens know what right they should have. Nowadays, citizens can to know and find out the truth and information through the internet. Future generations also have the rights to choose what the choices they want, such as they have rights to decide what they want to do, purchase, eat, sleep, and drink. They have to choose by themselves. Parents are very nervous their children, everything are done for children, do not know what children want. Obligation In my opinion, people should to do something to secure future generations have to know and can to keep on to other future generations. The obligations for future generations there are to protection environment and give a freedom selection. Parents or other people cannot to make a decision for the future generations; they have rights to decide by their own. Future generations have the rights live in a good environment that they have a right to choose what environment to live. They have the rights to breath in every air are pure and fresh; do not have any haze mix with the air. Nowadays, water, air and noise are polluted by human; the future generations might not have a good environment for the rest of the life. Besides that, some kind of animals and plants are facing extinct because of human are not save the planet. Human are always wasted natural resource and to polluted environment. Air pollution, future generations have rights to choose what air to breath in, they have rights to decide how fresh the air breath in, but children might need to wear mask for prevent breath in that air are destroying their lung. Have a lot of the mill, factory, manufactures are doing some kind of business that polluted air. To burn the chemical in order for produce the product, and the haze will spread out and in the air. Water pollution, water is very important for our life that is cannot lack of. Has a lot of the company using water to conduct business, at same time, the company is the most pollute water. Such as, company thrown some liquid have chemical in the rivers or seas. Besides polluted water, people are wasted water. Water on earth that only have 1/3 water is can to drink, 2/3 water is cannot drink that is salt water. If human waste or polluted water, in future, the future generation might do not have clear water for drink, even will have a war caused by water. Noise pollution, noise pollution is very effect people think and emotion. The sound will make people going in bad emotion because the sound too noise. Such as, developer to building house nearby the school or surround the houses, the sound effecting the student study when developer to building the house, sure have come out some of the sound. Future generations have right to having a quiet and nice environment to study or live in. They would not hope have a noise sound surround their life. Animals and plants extinct, future generations have rights to know, discovery, see, and explore animals and plants, but nowadays, animals and plants are very rare, almost going to extinct. Animals and plants going to extinct because businessmen or businesswomen to mining trees, sure the trees will die and animals are loss shelter and die also. Future generations have right to know and see the animals, soon and later, future generation may not know how a trees or animals look. The obligation for environment is protection environment. For water, people should do not waste water, overuse or wasted. Company should not throw the cabbage or chemical liquid thrown in the rivers or seas. Company should to reduce the products are destroy through the air. Or use something can to replace that chemical which are release on the air. Such as air-conditioner have release a gas that destroy atmosphere to be thin enough, after that the UV light will directly come in the earth and human, animals, and planet will die caused of the UV light. Nowadays, air-conditioner release that gases are replace by another gas that do not have destroy our atmosphere. To prevent the developer developing the building make the noise, they should to developing the building is making sure done everything. Such as the building was built up already, and if some of the houses need to decoration the houses should to decoration when the building not yet allow people stay in. to reduce the noise, or the machine changes to silent machine. Animals and plants extinct because of the human mining trees after did not to re-plant in on the jungle. It is made the animals and plant extinct. Human should re-plant on the plant which is mined. Resources, businessmen or businesswomen are should not to wasted and use up the natural resource. Future generations have rights to use the natural material, but nowadays have a lot for natural materials are almost used up. The obligation of the human are to reuse the materials, such as recycle paper, tin, and so on. Do not wasted the natural materials, and to be more environmental protection. Such as recycle, reuse, and to be vegetarian to reduce the natural materials will be used up. In conclusion, future generations should have rights to choose what they want to do for future, such as education. And future generations have rights own any best environment and resource. Human should have obligations to take care and to succeed.

National Missile Defense (NMD) Research Paper -- Military Integrated D

National Missile Defense National Missile Defense (NMD) is an extremely complex land-based ballistic missile system with the sole purpose of defending the United States against a ballistic missile attack from a foreign country. The NMD architecture consists of five main components. 1. Ground-Based Interceptors (GBI): The purpose of the GBI is to destroy the incoming nuclear weapon. The interceptor is a multistage rocket, which is launched after receiving a firing solution from the command and control system. After exiting the atmosphere, the Exoatmospheric Kill Vehicle (EKV) is released. This is the actual equipment that is to intercept the incoming warhead and destroy it by colliding with it. The EKV has on-board thrusters that enable it to change course if required to intercept the warhead. 2. Battle Management, Command, Control, and Communications (BM/C3): The BM/C3 component is divided into two main parts. First, the Command and Control (BM/C2) system controls the overall NMD system. Information from sensors is forwarded to the BM/C2, which processes the data and determines the targets for the GBI to intercept. Second, the In-Flight Interceptor Communications System (IFICS) is a network of ground systems that relay communications to the GBI while in flight to guide it to the incoming warhead. 3. X-Band/Ground-Based Radars: These radar systems gather tracking information regarding the incoming warheads during the mid-course phase of the missile. This data is then sent to the BM/C2, which in turn is sent to the GBI for guidance to intercept the warhead. 4. Upgraded Early Warning Radars (UEWR): These radars systems detect targets near the horizon, early in the ballistic missi... ...s?† Coalition to Reduce Nuclear Dangers. 29 Sep 1999. < http://www.clw.org/coalition/ucsnmd092999.htm> 5 Class Notes from website 6 Class Notes from website 7 Gronlund, Lisbeth. â€Å"The Planned US NMD System: Is the Technology Ready for Deployment? Will the Pentagon Know If It Is?† Coalition to Reduce Nuclear Dangers. 29 Sep 1999. < http://www.clw.org/coalition/ucsnmd092999.htm> 8 Galum, John, Joshua Shakon and Tan Mau Wu. â€Å"National Missile Defense – A CS91 Final Project.† < http://www.cs.swarthmore.edu/~eroberts/cs91/projects/national-missile-defense/index.html> 9 Approaching Ethics, Class notes regarding instructions for the Ethical Decision-making Group Capture Worksheet 10 Approaching Ethics, Class notes regarding instructions for the Ethical Decision-making Group Capture Worksheet

Power :: essays research papers

When a person has enough power in a society, it gives them a lot of control over certain things. When they have this control, they can have ownership over a person or a thing. By naming someone, or something, a person gains an unspoken ownership over him or her, they are now in control of him or her and it has created a new identity for them and erased their old identity. Power, naming and un-naming, control and ownership and identity are very important elements in â€Å"Mary† and â€Å"No Name Woman†. Both essays deal with power, identity, control and ownership, while â€Å"Mary† focuses more on naming and â€Å"No Name Woman† focuses on un-naming.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One’s power and position in a society can give them the â€Å"right† or ability to name or un-name a person. Someone can gain this right by his or her status socially, financially, and even racially. If it’s their own child, of course, they have every right in the world to name him or her. But in some cultures, as is evident in â€Å"No Name Woman†, they have the right to take away someone’s name if they have disgraced their family and/or community. A name is very significant because it gives a person a sense of who they are, an identity. In â€Å"No Name Woman†, Kingston’s aunt had no identity except for the story her mother told her and in â€Å"Mary† Marguerite’s new boss, Mrs. Cullinan changed her name to Mary which then, in a way, removed Marguerite’s original identity and gave her a new one, one she didn’t want.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By changing Marguerite’s name, Mrs. Cullinan proves how much power she has over a little black servant like Marguerite. A rich white member of the society, in which Marguerite grew up, has more power and control over things than someone of a poor background or a black background. Mrs. Cullinan wasn’t the first to incite the drastic change of Marguerite’s name, although she started it off by calling her Margaret, it was in fact, one of her friends who suggested that â€Å"the name’s too long. I’d never bother myself. I’d call her Mary if I was you.†(5) As if showing off to her friends, and proving that she really does have control and power over black people, she starts calling her Mary, much to Marguerite’s disgust. Marguerite soon learned that Mrs. Cullinan had changed Miss Glory’s name twenty years ago.

Kyle Heslin-Rees

Darwin and Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde Literary genres which critics have applied as a framework for interpreting the novel include religious allegory, fable, detective story, sensation fiction, doppelganger literature, Scottish devil tales and gothic novel. Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde has been the influence for The Hulk, Two-Face and the general superhero genre for the story's ties to a double life. This story represents a concept in Victorian culture, that of the inner conflict of humanity's sense of good and evil. 10] In particular the novella has been interpreted as an examination of the duality of human nature (that good and evil exists in all), and that the failure to accept this tension (to accept the evil or shadow side) results in the evil being projected onto others. [11] Paradoxically in this argument, evil is actually committed in an effort to extinguish the perceived evil that has been projected onto the innocent victims.In Freudian Theory the thoughts and desires banished to the un conscious mind motivate the behavior of the conscious mind. If someone banishes all evil to the unconscious mind in an attempt to be wholly and completely good, it can result in the development of a Mr Hyde-type aspect to that person's character. [11] This failure to accept the tension of duality is related to Christian theology, where Satan's fall from Heaven is due to his refusal to accept that he is a created being (that he has a dual nature) and is not God. 11] This is why in Christianity, pride (to consider oneself as without sin or without evil) is the greatest sin, as it is the precursor to evil itself; it also explains the Christian concept of evil hiding in the light. [11] Various direct influences have been suggested for Stevenson's interest in the mental condition that separates the sinful from moral self. Among them are the Biblical text of Romans (7:20 â€Å"Now if I do what I do not want to do, it is no longer I who do it, but it is sin living in me that does it. ); t he split life in the 1780s of Edinburgh city councillor Deacon William Brodie, master craftsman by day, burglar by night; and James Hogg's novel The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner (1824), in which a young man falls under the spell of the devil. Some readers have argued that the â€Å"dual personalities† interpretation is overly simplistic. Jekyll himself notes that a person may be divided into many more than two distinct personalities — he expects that researchers in the future will discover that a person is made up of many different selves.In his discussion of the novel, Vladimir Nabokov argues that the â€Å"good versus evil† view of the novel is misleading, as Jekyll himself is not, by Victorian standards, a morally good person. [12] One popular interpretation is the â€Å"civilized versus animalistic† approach. Other readers have argued even further that the split between Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde represents the civilized and the an imalistic version of the same person. The description of Hyde as an almost prehuman creature and his actions that occur without thought, suggests that Hyde is more animal than man.Dr Jekyll on the other hand, can be seen as existing in a constant state of repression, with the only thing controlling his urges being the possible consequences imposed by civilized society. Another common interpretation sees the novella's duality as representative of Scotland and the Scottish character. On this reading the duality represents the national and linguistic dualities inherent in Scotland's relationship with the wider Britain and the English language, respectively, and also the repressive effects of the Calvinistic church on the Scottish character. 13] A further parallel is also drawn with the city of Edinburgh itself, Stevenson's birthplace, which consists of two distinct parts: the old medieval section historically inhabited by the city's poor, where the dark crowded slums were rife with all types of crime, and the modern Georgian area of wide spacious streets representing respectability. [13][14][15] The novella has also been noted as â€Å"one of the best guidebooks of the Victorian era† because of its piercing description of the fundamental dichotomy of the 19th century â€Å"outward respectability

General Translation Theories Essay

While not everyone who drives an automobile needs to understand the theory behind the internal combustion engine, someone does need to know this theory. I may be able to drive my Pontiac without any knowledge of internal combustion engines, until the Pontiac breaks down. Then, I must find someone (presumably a mechanic) who does in fact know enough theory to get the Pontiac running again. The same is true of translation theory. It is not necessary for everyone to know translation theory, nor is it even necessary for pastors and teachers to know everything about translation theory. It is necessary for pastors and teachers in the American church at the end of the twentieth century to know something about translation theory, for two reasons. First, it will affect the way we interpret the Bible for our people. If we are completely unaware of translation theory, we may unwittingly mislead our brothers and sisters in our interpretation. Second, there are so many English translations available, that no contemporary pastor will be able to escape the inevitable questions about which translations are superior. It is not my intention to provide anything like an exhaustive approach to either translation theory or semantic theory (relax, I’ll define this word later). Rather, I intend to discuss briefly the more important observations, which may be useful to the pastoral ministry. 1. Communication has three parties. Translation theory shares a number of concerns with what is commonly called communication theory. Perhaps the most important observation which the communication theorists have produced for translators is the recognition that every act of communication has three dimensions: Speaker (or author), Message, and Audience. The more we can know about the original author, the actual message produced by that author, and the original audience, the better acquainted we will be with that particular act of communication. An awareness of this tri-partite character of communication can be very useful for interpreters. Assuming that an act of communication is right now taking place, as you read what I wrote, there are three dimensions to this particular act of communication: myself, and what I am intending to communicate; the actual words which are on this page; and what you  understand me to be saying. When the three dimensions converge, the communication has been efficient. If we know, perhaps from another source, what an individual author’s circumstances are, this may help us understand the actual message produced. Martin Luther King, Jr. ‘s â€Å"Letters from Prison† are better understood by someone who knows the circumstances under which they were written rather than by someone who is oblivious to mid-20th century American history. If we know information about the author’s audience, this may also help us to understand the message itself. John Kennedy’s famous, â€Å"Ich bin ein Berliner† speech is better understood if one understands the apprehensions which many West German citizens had about American foreign policy during the early 1960s (and, knowing the audience was German may help explain why he did not speak this sentence in English! ). Recognizing that in addition to the message itself, there are the two other components of author and audience, the interpreter attempts to uncover as much information as possible about the author and audience. This is why biblical scholars spend so much time attempting to locate the circumstances of a given epistle; they are trying to discover information about author and audience, which will help complete the understanding of the particular act of communication represented by the message. At this point, an important warning needs to be expressed. For students of literature whose original audience and author are not present (i. e. , dead), we only have direct access to one of the three parties in the communicative process: the message itself. Whereas we would be profited by having direct access to author and audience (â€Å"Paul, what in the world did you mean about baptizing for the dead? â€Å"; or, â€Å"How did it hit you Galatians when Paul said he wished his troublers would castrate themselves? â€Å"), it would be incorrect to suggest that we must have such access for any understanding to take place. Frequently one encounters the extravagant statement to the effect that â€Å"one cannot understand a biblical book unless one understands the author’s (or audience’s) circumstances. â€Å"The problem with such statements is that they imply that we can have no understanding without access to information which simply does not always exist. We haven’t any idea who wrote the epistle to the Hebrews, or why, other than what may be indicated in the letter itself. Does this mean that we can’t understand it in any sense? I think not. We just have to recognize that information, which would assist the act of interpretation, is, in this case, missing. Related to this warning is a second. For Protestants, scripture itself is authoritative. Our reconstructions, often highly conjectural of the historical circumstances under which a given biblical work was written and read, are not authoritative, by my understanding of Protestant theology. Those reconstructions may assist our understanding of the biblical text, but they are not, in and of themselves, of any religious authority. Finally, we might add that the essential error of many exegetical theories is their exclusion of one or more of these three parties from consideration. While many important debates are continuing to influence interpretive theory, our evaluation of these debates would do well to retain a role for each of the three above-mentioned dimensions. 2. Formal and Dynamic Equivalence One of the ongoing debates about translations revolves around the question of whether, and in what degree, the translation should reflect the syntax, or form, of the original language. All translators agree that the translation should reflect faithfully the message of the original, but all are not agreed on whether the translation should adhere closely to the grammatical forms of the original language. Translations can be located on a spectrum, which would have, at one extreme, rigid adherence to the form of the original language (formal equivalence), and at the other extreme, complete disregard for the form (not the message) of the original language (dynamic equivalence). An interlinear would come the closest to the first extreme, followed by the NASB. At the other extreme would be the NEB and TEV. In between would be the RSV and NIV, with the RSV leaning more toward a formal equivalence, and the NIV leaning more toward a dynamic equivalence. It is probably fair to say that most contemporary linguists favor the dynamic equivalence approach in theory, though they might be disappointed in the various attempts at producing one. The reason for preferring to reproduce the thought of the original without attempting to conform to its form is that all languages have their own syntax. While the syntax of one language may be similar to the syntax of other languages, it is also dissimilar as well. Thus, if we attempt to adhere to the formal syntax of another language, we reproduce forms which are abnormal or confusing, if not downright distracting in the target language. For example, Greek tends to have very long sentences, whose various clauses are arranged in a logically hierarchical fashion. That is, there will be a number of dependent clauses connected to an independent clause. This type of sentence structure, perfectly normal in Greek, is called hypotactic (clauses are arranged logically under one another). English, by contrast, is not so comfortable with long sentences, and does not provide any easy way of indicating which clauses are dependent upon others. Our sentence structure is called paratactic (clauses are arranged logically alongside of one another). If we attempt to reproduce, in English, sentences of the same length as the Greek original, our audience will not be able to follow our translation. Ephesians 1:3-14, for instance, is one sentence in Greek, with well-defined subordinate clauses. If we attempt to reproduce a sentence of this length in English, the result will be so awkward that few, if any, English readers would be able to follow it. Consequently, translators must break the longer Greek sentences into shorter English sentences. For the pastor and teacher, it is important to be able to recognize the hypotactic structure of the original language, because it is frequently of theological and ethical significance. For instance, there is only one imperative (independent clause) in the Great Commission — â€Å"make disciples. † All the other verbs are dependent. The other clauses help to describe what the commandment means. Most English translations, however, obscure this matter by translating the Great Commission as though it were a string of equivalent imperatives. What’s worse, they tend to treat one of the dependent clauses as though it were the major (independent) clause (â€Å"Go†). So the teacher or pastor needs to be able to understand what is going on in the structure of the original language, without necessarily trying to reproduce it in an English translation. There are other differences between the two languages. Greek typically uses passive verbs; English prefers active verbs. Greek typically makes nouns out of verbs (making â€Å"redemption† as common as â€Å"redeem†). Speakers of English are not as comfortable with these abstractions; we are happier with verbs. A dynamic equivalence translation will commonly reproduce the meaning of the Greek in a more natural manner in English. In 2 Thess 2:13, for instance, pistei aletheias, is translated â€Å"belief in the truth† (formal equivalence) by the RSV, but â€Å"the truth that you believe† (dynamic equivalence) by the NEB. The latter, while not any more accurate than the former, is a little more natural, and thus more easily understood. A classic example of the difference between English and Greek syntax is evidenced by the difference in their respective employment of the participle. First, the Greek participle is much more common than the English. But the Greek participle is also used differently than the English participle. Greek commonly employs the participle in an attributive fashion, as a verbal adjective. This is very rare in English. James Taylor does sing about the â€Å"The Walking Man,† but this is rare outside of artistic expression. We would normally produce a relative clause, â€Å"the man who walks. † Because of the differences in the way the two languages use their respective participles, we simply cannot translate a Greek participle with an English participle in many cases, without being obscure or ambiguous. Dikaiothentes in Romans 5:1 should not be translated, â€Å"having been justified† (NASB: formal equivalence), but, â€Å"since we are justified† (RSV: dynamic equivalence). There are problems, however, with dynamic equivalence translations. Since the translator is â€Å"freer† from the grammatical forms of the original language he is more likely to exceed the bounds of an accurate translation, in an effort to speak naturally in the native language. That is, the dynamic equivalence translations are capable of being more natural and more precise than are formal equivalence translations, but they are also more capable of being precisely wrong. For instance, in Romans 8:3, Paul uses the phrase: dia tes sarkos. A formal equivalent translation, the RSV, renders this â€Å"by the flesh,† which is faithful to the original but somewhat ambiguous in English. The NIV renders this much more precisely, by the phrase, â€Å"by the sinful nature. † Unfortunately, the NIV is precisely wrong here, because Paul is not talking about a lower nature, or a sinful nature at all. In fact, he is not speaking anthropologically, but redemptive-historically. In this particular case, I believe we would be better off with the ambiguous â€Å"flesh,† and have to ask what, ‘flesh’ means for Paul, than to have the more precise but utterly un-Pauline â€Å"sinful nature. † Another problem associated with dynamic equivalence translations is related to their use as study Bibles. Since a given word may have a number of meanings, it is frequently impossible, and more frequently confusing, to attempt to translate a given Greek word with the same English word in every case. Consequently, the dynamic equivalence translation can give a more specific rendering in English, being unbound by an attempt to reproduce the same Greek word in the same English manner. This produces better understanding, frequently, of individual sentences or clauses. However, it does not permit the English reader to know when the same Greek word lay behind two different English words. Since the only way to know what a word means is by first examining its full range of uses, there is no way for the English reader to know what words are behind the English words found. For instance, when Paul says he could not address the Corinthians as pneumatikoi, but rather as sarkinoi (1 Cor 3), he employs the adjectival forms of what we normally translate â€Å"Spirit† and â€Å"flesh. † And, in Romans 8 (as well as elsewhere), it is clear that life in the Spirit is redeemed life; whereas life in the flesh is unredeemed life. If the adjectives in 1 Cor are translated â€Å"spiritual,† and â€Å"fleshly,† the reader can see the correspondence to other Pauline passages, and understand that Paul is saying, in effect, â€Å"I could not address you as redeemed people, but as unredeemed people. † But the NIV construes sarx as â€Å"sinful nature† in Rom 8, and sarkinos as â€Å"worldly† in 1 Cor 3, with the result that the reader of this translation is not aware that in the original the same root form was employed. The conclusion of this is that the dynamic equivalence translation, when done well, renders in more precise and more vivid English particular expressions. However, it makes it more difficult to compare individual passages with parallel passages elsewhere. In any given congregation, a variety of translations will be present. The teachers in the church must have the competence to discern which one represents the original most accurately in English in any circumstance. In my judgment, none of the contemporary translations is manifestly superior to the others. Each is a blend of strengths and weaknesses, due to the difficulty of the task. From the pulpit, of course, some versions can be excluded rather easily. Paraphrases, while useful to illustrate a point, should never be used as the basic sermon text, because they reflect so thoroughly the opinions of the paraphraser. Also, children’s Bibles, such as the Good News, and, to a lesser degree, the NIV should not be used as the basis of a sermon directed toward the entire congregation. The NASB should not be used, simply because its English is atrocious. Its rigid adherence to the formal equivalence principle, while making it highly useful in the study, renders it completely inappropriate in a setting where communication is important. The NIV should not be used from the pulpit, in my judgment, because it is a sectarian translation. It is a self-confessedly â€Å"evangelical† translation, which excluded non-evangelicals from the translation process. It is therefore ecclesiastically unacceptable (it excludes from the outset people who don’t call themselves â€Å"evangelical,† just as the Kingdom Translation excludes people who don’t call themselves Jehovah’s Witnesses). In fact, even for study purposes, one will have to be cautious about the evangelical bias reflected in this translation, whereby the weaknesses, as well as the strengths, of evangelicalism have not been offset by a more â€Å"inclusive† committee. Specifically, the NIV shows many signs of being individualistic, experientialist, and revivalistic (I am speaking about the NIV New Testament; I haven’t evaluated the NIV Old Testament thoroughly yet). At the same time, the NIV ought to be in the minister’s study because it is a good illustration of the demands of a dynamic equivalence translation, and it is also very successful at many points. The RSV, reflecting the breadth of the church, a high style of English, and a reasonably accurate representation of the original text, is perhaps the preferred text for pulpit use. 3.  Translation is a theological task It has become increasingly clear that translation cannot really be performed in a theological vacuum. When a variety of linguistic options present themselves, theological factors can influence the decision to choose one option over the other. In fact, such factors should influence the translation. The resolution of the translation question about how to translate telos in Romans 10:4 is resolved in large part by resolving larger questions about Paul’s theology; how he understands the relation between the older testament and the Christ event, etc. Since theology is to be determined by the Bible, and since translating the Bible is determined, at least in part, by theological considerations, it is easy to see that there is something of a circle here. Fortunately, it is not a vicious cycle, because if one is willing to entertain sympathetically a variety of options, one can grow in the confidence with which one evaluates a given translation. One must never pretend, however, that translation is a step of â€Å"pre-exegesis† or â€Å"pre-interpretation. † The first step of interpretation is  translation. This step will influence all other steps, so it must be approached with the entire arsenal of theological tools. Semantic Theory It is appropriate now to move to some consideration of dealing with the meaning of individual words (commonly called lexical semantics). A lexicon in the hands of an over-imaginative preacher may be the deadliest of all human instruments. In terms of sheer percentages, more pulpit nonsense may be attributable to a misunderstanding of how words communicate meaning than any other interpretive error. Since the technical study of linguistics began in the early nineteenth century, a number of very valuable insights have been discovered by the linguists. What follows is an attempt at providing some of their most useful insights for those who want to teach and preach faithfully. 1. Semantic Field and Context Most words can mean a number of things. Take the English word, â€Å"run. † It can appear in the following (and many more) contexts: The athlete is running. Her nose is running. We scored a run in the sixth inning. I have a run in my stocking. Does your car run? My computer runs on Windows. For how long is the movie running? You want to run that by me again? His sermons seem to run on forever. She’s running the flag up the pole. Jackson is running for President. Who left the water running? Enough, already. It is obvious that most words can mean a number of different things. How do we know what a word means in a given circumstance? Well, we don’t just choose the one we prefer. In fact there are two components to meaning: semantic field and semantic context. By semantic field, we mean the full range of ways the word has and can be used (an example is the above, partial semantic field for â€Å"run†). By examining the â€Å"field† of possible meanings, we begin to narrow the options. Normally, there are still too many options, so we have to take another step. The second step is to determine the semantic context. If â€Å"run,† for instance, can refer to rapid, bipedal locomotion in some contexts, we can eliminate that option in contexts where there are no legs or feet. If â€Å"run† can mean â€Å"flow,† or â€Å"drip,† it is a possible way of understanding it where noses and faucets appear, but not where liquids do not appear. In everyday speech, we do this kind of comparison to semantic context so rapidly and unreflectively that we are not normally aware of doing it. But we do it nevertheless, and normally with great accuracy. It is imperative that we do this with biblical literature as well. No word brings its full semantic field with it into any given context. Yet many fanciful pulpit statements are due to the attempt to do this very thing. 2. â€Å"Root† Meanings Many people speak of â€Å"root meanings. † Many people speak of ghosts. Neither exists. Apparently, when people speak of â€Å"root† meanings of words, they are attempting to find the distilled essence, or the common semantic range of the word in each of its contexts. This may, by dumb luck, work in some circumstances, but it won’t work in most. What common â€Å"root† meaning is there in the word â€Å"run† which can account for the variety of uses listed above? Is it motion? Perhaps, for the athlete, the flag, even the nose (which doesn’t move itself, but its contents do). But is there any â€Å"motion† involved in the statement that a person is running for an office? Is any motion taking place when a movie â€Å"runs† for six weeks? Is a â€Å"run† in a stocking a movement of some sort? I fail to see how there is, without redefining the word â€Å"motion† to include virtually everything. And if we do this, then we aren’t learning anything specific about the term in question (This is the practical deficiency of the Componential Analysis approach to Semantics; if one finds an element common enough to be related to all the various uses, it isn’t specific enough to be any real help in any given context). In actual fact, we don’t really know why people use terms in such a broad range of ways as they do. But the answer certainly doesn’t lie in the fact of some alleged â€Å"root† meaning, common to all uses. Thus, for interpretation’s sake, it is better not to speak of â€Å"root† meanings at all. Just look at the entire semantic field, and then limit that field by the contextual considerations. This doesn’t mean that there are no similarities in the variety of a term’s uses. If we return to â€Å"run,† we can determine several â€Å"sub†-fields. We can see â€Å"run† used of liquids, to indicate they are flowing. We can see â€Å"run† used with machines to indicate that they are operating as they should. We can see it used in reference to putting one foot ahead of another repeatedly, in rapid succession, which would embrace the athlete, and, by extension, the â€Å"runs† in a baseball game (which are a short-hand reference to someone â€Å"running† around the bases). But these fields do not appear to be related to each other, and worse, these fields do not account for the stocking or the flag. Perhaps we ought to just bring â€Å"root† meanings out once a year, on October 31st, and then put them back for the rest of the year. 3. Etymologies and Semantic Change Etymology is a perfectly valid field of study. Etymology is the study of the history of a word’s usage. It has the historical benefit of demonstrating to us what a word might have meant in a given period. One thing etymologists have discovered, of course, is that words change over time. That is, people apparently use terms in an increasing variety of ways, extending known usages, and coining new usages. Thus, the history of a word’s usage is not necessarily any help in determining its meaning in a particular context. And certainly it is not the case that the â€Å"earliest† known meaning is the â€Å"true,† â€Å"real,† or, need I say it, â€Å"root† meaning. â€Å"Gay,† for instance, might well have meant â€Å"happy† or â€Å"carefree† in certain places in certain times. It most emphatically does not mean that today in San Francisco. Do not be misled; a â€Å"happy† hour at a â€Å"gay† bar may be a very miserable experience for a heterosexual teetotaler. The biblical interpreter is not particularly interested in what a term may have meant several centuries prior to the time in question. Rather, the biblical interpreter wants to know what range of meaning a term had in the period in question. Etymology is not particularly helpful as a guide to the meaning of a term in any given context. Semantic context is the more reliable guide. 4. Polyvalency You may run across (oops, another use of â€Å"run†) this term from time to time, so you may as well know what it means. â€Å"Polyvalency† refers to the ability of a given term to have a number of meanings in any given historical period. â€Å"Run† is polyvalent. It is important for the interpreter to be aware of the full range of possible meanings of a given word, before determining what it means in its given context. 5. Words and Concepts For the sake of clarity, it is helpful to distinguish between a word and a concept. Most words can be employed to denote a number of concepts, and most concepts can be addressed by using a range of terms. Thus, charis is a word; grace is a concept which can be labeled in a variety of ways. So, if you want to study, â€Å"The Grace of God in the New Testament,† you would certainly include not only a word study of charis, but also passages which refer to God’s gracious activity without employing that particular term. For instance, the parable of the laborers in the vineyard reflects God’s gracious character, as those who come along late in the day receive equal recompense with those who have labored all day. God graciously gives the kingdom not only to the Jews, but also to the Gentiles, who come on the scene a bit late, redemptive-historically speaking. 6. Semantic â€Å"Minimalism† One of the best axioms to apply when attempting to discover the meaning of any given word was first coined by Ferdinand de Saussure and his followers. The best meaning of a given term is the meaning which contributes the least to the overall meaning of the sentence. In most communication acts, we do not â€Å"load up† a given word with a lot of meaning. Rather, we speak in paragraphs and sentences — the individual words have little meaning in and of themselves, but much meaning when tied to one another. Many seminarians and preachers seem to be unaware of this, for they frequently interpret the Bible as though its individual words were almost magical, possessing great truths and mysteries in six or seven letters. There are very few technical terms in any language, which are more heavily â€Å"loaded† than most words. Concluding Observations If one were to state briefly the results of linguistic study in the last few generations, one would certainly have to refer to the importance of context. Linguistics has made us repeatedly aware of the fact that the fundamental communicative unit is the sentence, not the word. Individual words, removed from the context of a sentence, rarely communicate effectively. Words strung together, mutually supporting and interpreting one another, can communicate very effectively. For biblical students, this means that we must look at the larger unites of communication (the sentence and paragraph) at least as seriously as we look at individual words. We must be aware of the fact that a given word can signify a number of different things in a number of different contexts. Personally, I would like to see more sermons on whole chapters of scripture, and even on entire books, and fewer sermons on a verse here or there. If a person can produce a single 20-minute distillation of Romans 1-11, he can certainly handle Romans 6:3 when it shows up. If the contextual emphasis of contemporary linguistics can help us see the â€Å"forest† of a biblical book, as opposed to merely the â€Å"trees† of individual words, it will have done us and God’s kingdom a great service. ________________________________________ Dr. T. David Gordon, a native of Richmond, VA, is currently Professor of Religion and Greek at Grove City College in Grove City, PA, where he has served since 1999. Previously, he had taught for thirteen years at Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary. ________________________________________ TRANSLATION METHODS ‘ WORD FOR WORD translation: The SL word order is preserved and the words translated by their most common meanings. Cultural words are translated literally. The main use of this method is either to understand the mechanics of the source language or to construe a difficult text as pre-translation process. ‘ LITERAL translation: The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents but the lexical items are again translated out of context. As pre-translation process, it indicates problems to be solved. ‘ FAITHFUL translation: It attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures. It transfers cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical deviation from SL norms. It attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text-realisation of the SL writer. ‘ SEMANTIC translation: It differs from faithful translation only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value of the SL text, compromising on meaning where appropriate so that no assonance, word play or repetition jars in the finished version. It does not rely on cultural equivalence and makes very small concessions to the readership. While `faithful’ translation is dogmatic, semantic translation is more flexible. ‘ COMMUNICATIVE translation: It attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both language and content are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership. IDIOMATIC translation: It reproduces the message of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms. ‘ FREE translation: It reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content without the form of the original. Usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the original. ‘ ADAPTATION: This is the freest form of translation mainly used for plays and poetry: themes, characters, plots preserved, SL culture converted to TL culture and text is rewritten. From A Textbook of Translation by P. Newmark